Rae, J. W. B. et al. Atmospheric CO₂ over the Past 66 Million Years from Marine Archives. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 49, 609–641 (2021).
‍
Shukla, P. R. et al. IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press (2022).The Climate Book. (Penguin Random House UK, 2022).

Smith, S. M. et al. The State of Carbon Dioxide Removal - 1st Edition. (The State of Carbon Dioxide Removal, 2023).

Natural weathering estimates

‍

Frings, P. J. Palaeoweathering: How Do Weathering Rates Vary with Climate? Elements 15, 259–265 (2019).

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Hartmann, J., Jansen, N., Dürr, H. H., Kempe, S. & Köhler, P. Global CO₂-consumption by chemical weathering: What is the contribution of highly active weathering regions? Glob. Planet. Change 69, 185–194 (2009).

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Kasting, J. F. The Goldilocks Planet? How Silicate Weathering Maintains Earth “Just Right”. Elements 15, 235–240 (2019).

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Porder, S. How Plants Enhance Weathering and How Weathering is Important to Plants. Elements 15, 241–246 (2019).

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Renforth, P. The negative emission potential of alkaline materials. Nat. Commun. 10, 1401 (2019).

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Turnover/mixing time of the oceans

‍

Webb, P. Introduction to Oceanography. (Creative Commons Attribution, 2019).

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Residence time of bicarbonate in the oceans

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Berner, R. A., Lasaga, A. C. & Garrels, R. M. The carbonate-silicate geochemical cycle and its effect on atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past 100 million years. Am. J. Sci. 283, 641–683 (1983).

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Weathering kinetics - silicate vs. carbonate minerals

‍

Liu, Z., Dreybrodt, W. & Liu, H. Atmospheric CO₂ sink: Silicate weathering or carbonate weathering? Appl. Geochemistry 26, S292–S294 (2011).

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Palandri, J. L. & Kharaka, Y. K. A compilation of rate parameters of water-mineral interaction kinetics for application to geochemical modelling. Open-File Report (2004).

Overview papers

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Hartmann, J. et al. Enhanced chemical weathering as a geoengineering strategy to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide, supply nutrients, and mitigate ocean acidification. Rev. Geophys. 51, 113–149 (2013).

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Renforth, P. & Henderson, G. Assessing ocean alkalinity for carbon sequestration. Rev. Geophys. 55, 636–674 (2017).

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Enhanced weathering field studies

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Almaraz, M. et al. Methods for determining the CO₂ removal capacity of enhanced weathering in agronomic settings. Frontiers in Climate 4, (2022).

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Beerling, D. J. et al. Enhanced weathering in the US Corn Belt delivers carbon removal with agronomic benefits. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 121, (2024).

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Dietzen, C. & Rosing, M. T. Quantification of CO₂ uptake by enhanced weathering of silicate minerals applied to acidic soils. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 125, 103872 (2023).

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Hamilton, S. K., Kurzman, A. L., Arango, C., Jin, L. & Robertson, G. P. Evidence for carbon sequestration by agricultural liming. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 21, (2007).

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Haque, F., Santos, R. M. & Chiang, Y. W. CO₂ sequestration by wollastonite-amended agricultural soils – An Ontario field study. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 97, 103017 (2020).

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Holden, F. J. et al. In-field carbon dioxide removal via weathering of crushed basalt applied to acidic tropical agricultural soil. Science of The Total Environment 955, 176568 (2024).

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Holzer, I. O., Nocco, M. A. & Houlton, B. Z. Direct evidence for atmospheric carbon dioxide removal via enhanced weathering in cropland soil. Environ. Res. Commun. 5, 101004 (2023).

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Kantola, I. B. et al. Improved net carbon budgets in the US Midwest through direct measured impacts of enhanced weathering. Glob Chang. Biol. 29, 7012–7028 (2023).

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Knapp, W. J. et al. Quantifying CO₂ Removal at Enhanced Weathering Sites: a Multiproxy Approach. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2023).

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Larkin, C. S. et al. Quantification of CO₂ removal in a large-scale enhanced weathering field trial on an oil palm plantation in Sabah, Malaysia. Frontiers in Climate 4, (2022).

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Maxbauer, D. P. et al. Evidence for carbon dioxide removal via enhanced rock weathering with steel slag, though not basalt, in a midwestern U.S. field trial. Frontiers in Climate Volume 7-2025, (2026).

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McBride, A. L. et al. Quantifying potential carbon dioxide removal via enhanced weathering using porewater from a field trial in Scotland. Frontiers in Climate Volume 7-2025, (2025).

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McDermott, F., Bryson, M., Magee, R. & van Acken, D. Enhanced weathering for CO₂ removal using carbonate-rich crushed returned concrete; a pilot study from SE Ireland. Applied Geochemistry 106056 (2024).

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Oh, N.-H. & Raymond, P. A. Contribution of agricultural liming to riverine bicarbonate export and CO₂ sequestration in the Ohio River basin. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 20, (2006).

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Skov, K. et al. Initial agronomic benefits of enhanced weathering using basalt: A study of spring oat in a temperate climate. PLoS One19, e0295031 (2024).

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Taylor, L. L. et al. Increased carbon capture by a silicate-treated forested watershed affected by acid deposition. Biogeosciences 18, 169–188 (2021).

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Enhanced weathering mesocosm/lab studies

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Amann, T. et al. Enhanced Weathering and related element fluxes -- a cropland mesocosm approach. Biogeosciences 17, 103–119 (2020).

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Buckingham, F. L., Henderson, G. M., Holdship, P. & Renforth, P. Soil core study indicates limited CO₂ removal by enhanced weathering in dry croplands in the UK. Appl. Geochemistry 147, 105482 (2022).

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Buckingham, F. L., Henderson, G. M. & Renforth, P. Response to Comment from West et al. on, “Soil core study indicates limited CO₂ removal by enhanced weathering in dry croplands in the UK”. Appl. Geochemistry 152, 105622 (2023).

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Buckingham, F. L. & Henderson, G. M. The enhanced weathering potential of a range of silicate and carbonate additions in a UK agricultural soil. Sci. Total Environ. 907, 167701 (2024).

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Danczyk, M. & Oze, C. Suitability of rocks, minerals, and cement waste for CO2 removal via enhanced rock weathering. Commun Chem 7, 272 (2024).

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Haque, F., Santos, R. M., Dutta, A., Thimmanagari, M. & Chiang, Y. W. Co-Benefits of Wollastonite Weathering in Agriculture: CO₂ Sequestration and Promoted Plant Growth. ACS Omega 4, 1425–1433 (2019).

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Kelland, M. E. et al. Increased yield and CO₂ sequestration potential with the C4 cereal Sorghum bicolor cultivated in basaltic rock dust-amended agricultural soil. Glob. Chang. Biol. 26, 3658–3676 (2020).

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ten Berge, H. F. M. et al. Olivine Weathering in Soil, and Its Effects on Growth and Nutrient Uptake in Ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.): A Pot Experiment. PLoS One 7, e42098 (2012).

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Vienne, A. et al. Enhanced Weathering Using Basalt Rock Powder: Carbon Sequestration, Co-benefits and Risks in a Mesocosm Study With Solanum tuberosum. Frontiers in Climate 4, (2022).

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West, L. J., Banwart, S. A., Martin, M. V., Kantzas, E. & Beerling, D. J. Making mistakes in estimating the CO₂ sequestration potential of UK croplands with enhanced weathering. Appl. Geochemistry 151, 105591 (2023).

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Enhanced weathering modelling studies

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Beerling, D. J. et al. Potential for large-scale CO₂ removal via enhanced rock weathering with croplands. Nature 583, 242–248 (2020).

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Kantzas, E. P. et al. Substantial carbon drawdown potential from enhanced rock weathering in the United Kingdom. Nat. Geosci. 15, 382–389 (2022).

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Raymond, P., Planavsky, N. & Reinhard, C. T. Using carbonates for carbon removal. Nature Water 3, 844–847 (2025).

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Zeng, S., Liu, Z. & Groves, C. Large-scale CO₂ removal by enhanced carbonate weathering from changes in land-use practices. Earth-Science Rev. 225, 103915 (2022).

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Risks

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Carbonic acid vs. ‘strong’ acid weathering‍

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Andrews, M. G. & Taylor, L. L. Combating Climate Change Through Enhanced Weathering of Agricultural Soils. Elements 15, 253–258 (2019).

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Aquilina, L. et al. Long-Term Effects of High Nitrogen Loads on Cation and Carbon Riverine Export in Agricultural Catchments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 9447–9455 (2012).

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Dumale, W., Miyazaki, T., Hirai, K. & Nishimura, T. SOC Turnover and Lime-CO₂ Evolution during Liming of an Acid Andisol and Ultisol. Open J. Soil Sci. 1, 50–54 (2011).

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Li, C. & Ji, H. Chemical weathering and the role of sulfuric and nitric acids in carbonate weathering: Isotopes (¹³C, ¹⁵N, ³⁴S, and ¹⁸O) and chemical constraints. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosciences 121, 1288–1305 (2016).

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Perrin, A.-S., Probst, A. & Probst, J.-L. Impact of nitrogenous fertilizers on carbonate dissolution in small agricultural catchments: Implications for weathering CO₂ uptake at regional and global scales. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 72, 3105–3123 (2008).

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Semhi, K., Amiotte Suchet, P., Clauer, N. & Probst, J. L. Impact of nitrogen fertilizers on the natural weathering-erosion processes and fluvial transport in the Garonne basin. Appl. Geochemistry 15, 865–878 (2000).

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Spence, J. & Telmer, K. The role of sulfur in chemical weathering and atmospheric CO₂ fluxes: Evidence from major ions, δ13CDIC, and δ34SSO4 in rivers of the Canadian Cordillera. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 69, 5441–5458 (2005).

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West, T. O. & McBride, A. C. The contribution of agricultural lime to carbon dioxide emissions in the United States: dissolution, transport, and net emissions. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 108, 145–154 (2005).

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CO₂ degassing from surface waters‍

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Abril, G. et al. Technical Note: Large overestimation of pCO₂ calculated from pH and alkalinity in acidic, organic-rich freshwaters. Biogeosciences 12, 67–78 (2015).

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Ciais, P. et al. Carbon and Other Biogeochemical Cycles Supplementary Material. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2013).

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Knapp, W. J. & Tipper, E. T. The efficacy of enhancing carbonate weathering for carbon dioxide sequestration. Front. Clim. 4, (2022).

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Hartmann, J., Lauerwald, R. & Moosdorf, N. A Brief Overview of the GLObal RIver Chemistry Database, GLORICH. Procedia Earth Planet. Sci. 10, 23–27 (2014).

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Marx, A. et al. A review of CO₂ and associated carbon dynamics in headwater streams: A global perspective. Rev. Geophys. 55, 560–585 (2017).

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Raymond, P. A. et al. Global carbon dioxide emissions from inland waters. Nature 503, 355–359 (2013).
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‍Ecological/downstream effects

Jüttner, I. et al. Assessing the impact of land use and liming on stream quality, diatom assemblages and juvenile salmon in Wales, United Kingdom. Ecol. Indic. 121, 107057 (2021).

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Kaushal, S. S. et al. Human-accelerated weathering increases salinization, major ions, and alkalinization in fresh water across land use. Appl. Geochemistry 83, 121–135 (2017).

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Millard, G. D., Riva-Murray, K., Burns, D. A., Montesdeoca, M. R. & Driscoll, C. T. The impact of lime additions on mercury dynamics in stream chemistry and macroinvertebrates: a comparison of watershed and direct stream addition management strategies. Ecotoxicology 29, 1627–1643 (2020).

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Miller, J. D., Anderson, H. A., Harriman, R. & Collen, P. The consequences of liming a highly acidified catchment in central Scotland. Water. Air. Soil Pollut. 85, 1015–1020 (1995).

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Co-benefits

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N₂O emissions reduction
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Russenes, A. L., Korsaeth, A., Bakken, L. R. & Dörsch, P. Spatial variation in soil pH controls off-season N₂O emission in an agricultural soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 99, 36–46 (2016).

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Žurovec, O. et al. Increasing soil pH reduces fertiliser derived N₂O emissions in intensively managed temperate grassland. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 311, 107319 (2021).

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Silica increasing plant resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses
‍

Ahmed, S. R. et al. Potential Role of Silicon in Plants Against Biotic and Abiotic Stresses. Silicon (2022).

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Frew, A., Weston, L. A., Reynolds, O. L. & Gurr, G. M. The role of silicon in plant biology: a paradigm shift in research approach. Ann. Bot. 121, 1265–1273 (2018).

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Wang, L. et al. Silicon modulates multi-layered defense against powdery mildew in Arabidopsis. Phytopathol. Res. 2, 7 (2020).‍

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pH optimisation of crop performance

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Holland, J. E., White, P. J., Glendining, M. J., Goulding, K. W. T. & McGrath, S. P. Yield responses of arable crops to liming – An evaluation of relationships between yields and soil pH from a long-term liming experiment. Eur. J. Agron. 105, 176–188 (2019).‍

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Ecological/downstream effects‍

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Bach, L. T., Gill, S. J., Rickaby, R. E. M., Gore, S. & Renforth, P. CO₂ Removal With Enhanced Weathering and Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement: Potential Risks and Co-benefits for Marine Pelagic Ecosystems. Front. Clim. 1, (2019).

Brander, M., Ascui, F., Scott, V. & Tett, S. Carbon accounting for negative emissions technologies. Clim. Policy 21, 699–717 (2021).
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Brander, M. & Broekhoff, D. Discounting emissions from temporarily stored carbon creates false claims on contribution to cumulative emissions and temperature alignment. SSRN (2023).

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Brander, M. Attributional LCA is not appropriate for quantifying net removals from offset projects. Carbon Manag. 15, 2405035 (2024).

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Brander, M., Broekhoff, D. & Bryson, M. Clarifying what is meant by greenhouse gas ‘removals’ and categorising types of ‘removal-related activities’. CarbonManag. 17, 2625956 (2026).

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Fridahl, M., Hansson, A. & Haikola, S. Towards Indicators for a Negative Emissions Climate Stabilisation Index: Problems and Prospects. Climate 8, (2020).

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Plevin, R. J., Delucchi, M. A. & Creutzig, F. Using Attributional Life Cycle Assessment to Estimate Climate-Change Mitigation Benefits Misleads Policy Makers. J. Ind. Ecol. 18, 73–83 (2014).

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Russel, S. Estimating and Reporting the Comparative Emissions Impacts of Products. (2019).

Soil

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Almaraz, M. et al. Methods for determining the CO₂ removal capacity of enhanced weathering in agronomic settings. Frontiers in Climate 4, (2022).

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Hasemer, H., Borevitz, J. & Buss, W. Measuring enhanced weathering: inorganic carbon-based approaches may be required to complement cation-based approaches. Frontiers in Climate 6, (2024).

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Power, I. M. et al. Are enhanced rock weathering rates overestimated? A few geochemical and mineralogical pitfalls. Frontiers in Climate 6,(2024).

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Reershemius, T. et al. Initial Validation of a Soil-Based Mass-Balance Approach for Empirical Monitoring of Enhanced Rock Weathering Rates. Environ. Sci. Technol. 57, 19497–19507 (2023).

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Soil water

‍

Weihermüller, L. et al. In Situ Soil Water Extraction: A Review. J. Environ. Qual. 36, 1735–1748 (2007).

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Greenhouse gas flux

‍

Ray, R. L. et al. Soil CO₂ emission in response to organic amendments, temperature, and rainfall. Sci. Rep. 10, 5849 (2020).

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Subke, J.-A., Kutzbach, L. & Risk, D. Soil Chamber Measurements BT  - Springer Handbook of Atmospheric Measurements. in (ed. Foken, T.) 1603–1624 (Springer International Publishing, 2021).

Xi, F. et al. Substantial global carbon uptake by cement carbonation. Nat. Geosci. 9, 880–883 (2016).